References

Ahlering, T.E., S.D. Boyd, C.L. Hamilton, S.D. Bragin, P.T. Chandrasoma, G. Lieskovsky and D.G. Skinner, 1985. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: A 5-year experience with 13 patients. J. Urol., 134: 1086-1088.
PubMed  |  

Aswathaman, K., G. Gopalakrishnan, L. Gnanaraj, N.K. Chacko, N.S. Kekre and A. Devasia, 2008. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: Outcome of conservative management. Urology, 71: 1007-1009.
CrossRef  |  

Azzini, A.M., P. Sette, G. Castellano and R.M. Dorizzi, 2009. A rare association of emphysematous pyelonephritis with unrecognized diabetes and polycystic kidney. Indian J. Nephrol., 19: 20-22.
CrossRef  |  

Best, C.D., M.K. Terris, J.R. Tacker and J.H. Reese, 1999. Clinical and radiological findings in patients with gas forming renal abscess treated conservatively. J. Urol., 162: 1273-1276.
Direct Link  |  

Boltan, L.E., H. Randall and Y.M. Barri, 2008. Iatrogenic emphysematous pyelonephritis in a renal transplant patient. Transplant Infect. Dis., 10: 409-412.
CrossRef  |  

Brenbridge, A.N., A.J. Buschi, J.A. Cochrane and R.F. Lees, 1979. Renal emphysema of the tranplanted kidney: Sonographic appearance. Am. J. Roentgenol., 132: 656-658.
Direct Link  |  

Chen, K.W., J.J. Huang, M.H. Wu, X.Z. Lin, C.Y. Chen and M.K. Ruaan, 1994. Gas in hepatic veins: A rare and critical presentation of emphysematous pyelonephritis. J. Urol., 151: 125-126.
PubMed  |  

Chen, M.T., C.N. Huang, Y.H. Chou, C.H. Huang, C.P. Chiang and G.C. Liu, 1997. Percutaneous drainage in the treatment of emphysematous pyelonephritis: 10-year experience. J. Urol., 157: 1569-1573.
Direct Link  |  

Cheng, K.C., T.C. Lin, Y.T. Tsan, S.Y. Hu and L.M. Wang, 2009. Pneumomediastinum as first manifestation of emphysematous pyelonephritis in a patient who is non-diabetic. BMJ Case Rep., 10.1136/bcr.05.2009.1873

Derouiche, A., A. Ouni, A. Agrebi, A. Slama, M.R. Ben Slama and M. Chebil, 2008. La prise en charge des pyelonephrites emphysemateuses. A propos de 21 cas. [Management of emphysematous pyelonephritis based on a series of 21 cases]. Prog. Urol., 18: 102-107.
CrossRef  |  

Eloubeidi, M.A. and V.G. Fowler Jr., 1999. Images in clinical medicine. Emphysematous pyelonephritis. N. Engl. J. Med., 341: 737-737.
Direct Link  |  

Evanoff, G.V., C.S. Thompson, R. Foley and E.J. Weinman, 1987. Spectrum of gas within the kidney: Emphysematous pyelonephritis and emphysematous pyelitis. Am. J. Med., 83: 149-154.
CrossRef  |  

Falagas, M.E., V.G. Alexiou, K.P. Giannopoulou and I.I. Siempos, 2007. Risk factors for mortality in patients with emphysematous pyelonephritis: A meta-analysis. J. Urol., 178: 880-885.
CrossRef  |  

Goyzueta, J.D., R. Katz, O. Dumitrescu, H.S. Choi and T. Kahn, 1994. The disappearing kidney. A case of emphysematous pyelonephritis. Arch. Internal Med., 154: 2613-2615.
Direct Link  |  

Hall, J.R., R.G. Choa and I.P. Wells, 1988. Percutaneous drainage in emphysematous pyelonephritis-an alternative to major surgery. Clin. Radiol., 39: 622-624.
CrossRef  |  

Hart, P.D., M. Vaseemuddin, O. Egiebor and G. Dunea, 2007. Bilateral emphysematous pyelonephritis in a patient with no known risk factors. J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 99: 179-181.
Direct Link  |  

Huang, J.J. and C.C. Tseng, 2000. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: Clinicoradiological classification, management, prognosis and pathogenesis. Arch. Int. Med., 160: 797-805.
PubMed  |  

Huang, J.J., K.W. Chen and M.K. Ruaan, 1991. Mixed acid fermentation of glucose as a mechanism of emphysematous urinary tract infection. J. Urol., 146: 148-151.
PubMed  |  

Hudson, M.A., P.J. Weyman, A.H. van der Vliet and W.J. Catalona, 1986. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: Successful management by percutaneous drainage. J. Urol., 136: 884-886.
PubMed  |  

Joseph, R.C., M.A. Amendola, M.E. Artze, J. Casillas, S.Z. Jafri, P.R. Dickson and G. Morillo, 1996. Genitourinary tract gas: Imaging evaluation. Radiographics, 16: 295-308.
Direct Link  |  

Kamaliah, M.D., M.A. Bhajan and G.A. Dzarr, 2005. Emphysematous pyelonephritis caused by Candida infection. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 36: 725-727.
PubMed  |  

Kapoor, R., K. Muruganandham, A.K. Gulia, M. Singla and S. Agrawal et al., 2010. Predictive factors for mortality and need for nephrectomy in patients with emphysematous pyelonephritis. BJU Int., 105: 986-989.
CrossRef  |  

Karasavidou, L., S. Nikolaou, S. Archontakis, G. Papatheodorou, V. Koroneos and C. Drakoulis, 2006. Nonsurgical treatment of bilateral emphysematous pyelonephritis in a diabetic patient. J. Nephrol., 19: 664-667.
PubMed  |  

Kumar, A., J.H. Turney, A.M. Brownjohn and M.J. McMahon, 2001. Unusual bacterial infections of the urinary tract in diabetic patients-rare but frequently lethal. Nephrol. Dial. Trans., 16: 1062-1065.

Kumar, N., N.P. Singh, A. Mittal, A.T. Valson and H.S. Hira, 2009. An uncommon cause of postpartum renal failure-bilateral emphysematous pyelonephritis. Renal Failure, 31: 171-174.
CrossRef  |  

Langston, C.S. and R.C. Pfister, 1970. Renal emphysema. A case report and review of the literature. Am. J. Roentgenol. Radium Ther. Nucl. Med., 110: 778-786.
PubMed  |  

Liu, K.L., W.J. Lee, K.H. Huang and S.J. Chen, 2007. Right perirenal air: Emphysematous pyelonephritis or duodenal perforation? Kidney Int., 72: 773-774.
CrossRef  |  

McNeill, G.B., A. Holley and J. Lipman, 2009. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: An unusual complication of blunt abdominal trauma. Crit. Care Resusc., 11: 269-271.
PubMed  |  

Michaeli, J., P. Mogle, S. Perlberg, S. Heiman and M. Caine, 1984. Emphysematous pyelonephritis. J. Urol., 131: 203-208.
PubMed  |  

Ortiz, A., V. Petkov, J. Urbano, J. Contreras and S. Alexandru et al., 2007. Emphysematous pyelonephritis in dialysis patient after embolization of failed allograft. Urology, 70: 372.e17-372.e19.
CrossRef  |  

Park, B.S., S.J. Lee, Y.W. Kim, J.S. Huh, J. Kim and S.G. Chang, 2006. Outcome of nephrectomy and kidney-preserving procedures for the treatment of emphysematous pyelonephritis. Scand. J. Urol., 40: 332-338.
Direct Link  |  

Ramanathan, V., P.T. Nguyen, P. Van Nguyen, A. Khan and D. Musher, 2006. Successful medical management of recurrent emphysematous pyelonephritis. Urology, 67: 623.e11-623.e13.
CrossRef  |  

Schmidt, S., E. Foert, W. Zidek, M. van der Giet and T.H. Westhoff, 2009. Emphysematous pyelonephritis in a kidney allograft. Am. J. Kidney Dis., 53: 895-897.

Schreyer, H.H., M.M. Uggowitzer and A. Ruppert-Kohlmayr, 2002. Helical CT of the urinary organs. Eur. Radiol., 12: 575-591.
PubMed  |  

Schultz, E.H. and Jr. E.H. Klorfein, 1962. Emphysematous pyelonephritis. J. Urol., 87: 762-766.

Sheth, S. and E.K. Fishman, 2004. Multi-detector row CT of the kidneys and urinary tract: Techniques and applications in the diagnosis of benign diseases. Radiographics, Vol. 24,

Shokeir, A.A., M. El-Azab, T. Mohsen and T. El-Diasty, 1997. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: A 15-year experience with 20 cases. Urology, 49: 343-346.
CrossRef  |  

Somani, B.K., G. Nabi, P. Thorpe, J. Hussey, J. Cook and J. N'Dow, 2008. Is percutaneous drainage the new gold standard in the management of emphysematous pyelonephritis? Evidence from a systematic review. J. Urol., 179: 1844-1849.
CrossRef  |  

Thornton, F.J., S.S. Kandiah, W.S. Monkhouse and M.J. Lee, 2001. Helical CT evaluation of the perirenal space and its boundaries: A cadaveric study. Radiology, 218: 659-663.
PubMed  |  

Tokuyama, Y., T. Fujita, T. Hirayama, K. Matsushita, M. Iwamura and S. Baba, 2009. A case of emphysematous pyelonephritis successfully treated by endotoxin absorption therapy and transurethral retrograde drainage. Hinyokika Kiyo, 55: 421-424.
PubMed  |  

Wan, Y.L., S.K. Lo, M.J. Bullard, P.L. Chang and T.Y. Lee, 1998. Predictors of outcome in emphysematous pyelonephritis. J. Urol., 159: 369-373.
CrossRef  |  

Wan, Y.L., T.Y. Lee, M.J. Bullard and C.C. Tsai, 1996. Acute gas-producing bacterial renal infection: Correlation between imaging findings and clinical outcome. Radiology, 198: 433-438.
PubMed  |  

Wang, J.M., H.K. Lim and K.K. Pang, 2007. Emphysematous pyelonephritis. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol., 41: 223-229.
Direct Link  |  

Watanabe, H., R. Suzuki, T. Asano, K. Shio and H. Iwadate et al., 2010. A case of emphysematous pyelonephritis in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis taking corticosteroid and low-dose methotrexate. Int. J. Rheum. Dis., 13: 180-183.
CrossRef  |  

Yang, W.H. and N.C. Shen, 1990. Gas-forming infection of the urinary tract: An investigation of fermentation as a mechanism. J. Urol., 143: 960-964.